According to WHO/UNICEF, whilst 91.8% of urban households in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) had access to piped or protected groundwater (i.e. boreholes and protected wells/springs) in 2015, only 46.2% had safely managed water available when needed.
An estimated 116 million African households with piped water suffer regular supply disruptions [1].
Consequently, there has been a rapid growth in packaged water (i.e. water sold in bottles or plastic bags) consumption globally, with 20% or more people using bottled water as their main source in fifteen countries globally in 2010-16 [2].
In several West African countries (see graphic below), consumption of sachet water (water sold in 500ml plastic bags) is growing rapidly and widespread.
(source: WHO/UNICEF Joint monitoring programme; data points represent national household surveys or censuses)
In contrast, in much of east Africa, where Rwanda, Eritrea, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania have banned plastic bags [3], there is lower packaged water consumption and water is commonly sold in jerry-cans or other reusable plastic vessels. We have chosen our project study sites – Greater Accra in Ghana and Kisumu in Kenya – to reflect these contrasting situations.
Our team have worked in both sites for decades. Prof. Hill previously led two waves of the Women’s Health Survey in Accra, whilst Mr. Okotto-Okotto has nearly two decades’ experience of mapping water and sanitation services in off-grid neighbourhoods of Kisumu.
Further reading about the study sites on these related pages: